How do you paraphrase?

Posted on July 15, 2015 | Leave a comment

In the 21st century, middle school students are writing research papers, so they need to know how to paraphrase. Quoting word-for-word is no longer the preferred way to present information in a research paper; paraphrasing is.

So what is paraphrasing? Paraphrasing is saying what someone else said (or wrote) using your own vocabulary and grammar. Paraphrasing turns antiquated writing into easy-to-understand modern writing; paraphrasing captures the essence of a writer’s ideas while ignoring his boring language; paraphrasing avoids plagiarism.

Paraphrasing is not the same as summarizing. In a paraphrase, the writer tries to capture all the important details of the original; in a summary, the writer leaves out most of those details.

How does a student paraphrase?

  • First, read the selection to be paraphrased. If you don’t understand every word and idea, read it again, look up words and ask for help. You can’t paraphrase what you don’t understand.
  • Carefully study the first sentence. Put it in your own words, being careful to use different vocabulary.   In particular, change the verbs if you can, using specific synonyms.
  • Now change the grammar. Try changing the order of the parts of the sentence so the ideas are the same, but they are not stated within a sentence in the same order.
  • Of course, you will need to use some of the same words in the original for which there are no synonyms, or for which alternatives would be cumbersome. If you are paraphrasing rules about how to play soccer, for example, you would need to use “soccer,” “ball,” “goal, “field” “play” and many other soccer-specific words.
  • Move through the selection one sentence at a time. As you get more experience, you can paraphrase ideas rather than sentences, combining ideas in several sentences in the original into one sentence in the paraphrase.  Or you can cut long, verbose sentences in the original into two or more shorter sentences in the paraphrase.
  • Paraphrases don’t need to be exactly the same length as the original, but all the important ideas in the original need to be stated in the paraphrase.
  • Read over your paraphrase to be sure it is clear to the reader.

Notice the difference between the Preamble of the Declaration of Independence and a paraphrased version:

The original words:   “When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

A paraphrase: Sometimes, one group of people who have been politically connected to another group of people decide it’s necessary to go their separate ways and to become a new country. Out of respect for everyone involved, it’s a good idea for the country which is separating to explain the reasons why the break is necessary.

Leave a comment

Posted in clarity, English Writing Instruction, grammar, paraphrasing, summarizing

Dictating to children can expose reading and writing problems

Posted on July 8, 2015 | Leave a comment

Dictating—speaking words aloud for another person to write down—is a great way to vary reading and writing instruction and to gain insight into a child’s spelling, punctuation and writing abilities. It can show many kinds of errors which the parent might not be aware of.

3rd grader writing an essay.

  • Spelling errors might indicate that rules such as using a silent e at the end of many long vowel words, or doubling the consonants in CVC words when adding suffixes, have not been learned yet.
  • Handwriting problems might show that the child still mixes up b and d or p and q. Or the writing might show that the child does not make ascending lines go high enough, or descending lines go low enough.
  • Capitalization and punctuation errors could mean that a child doesn’t remember to start sentences with capitals or that he is unaware of the rules for proper nouns.
  • Lack of knowledge of sentence punctuation might show that a child needs more practice using commas, quotation marks, periods, question marks and exclamation points.
  • Certain letters written incorrectly might indicate a hearing problem or confusion over which sound is associated with which letter.
  • If some letters in the same word are written with large spaces between them, and others are not, or if there are no spaces between words, the child could be confused about what a word is and how a word is demonstrated in print.
  • Homophones spelled incorrectly could mean work on the various ways to spell its and it’s, they’re, their and there, and other sound-alike pairs is needed.

The dictating parent should use only words that the child is familiar with. Sentences should be short and clear. The dictating parent should tell the child how many times the sentence will be repeated, if at all, to be sure the child pays attention.

If there are several kinds of errors in the child’s writing, I would not tell the child that. Mention one thing to work on in the future. In the back of your mind, make a mental note of other ideas to work on.

Dictating from time to time is an informal way to assess learning.

Leave a comment

Posted in grammar, writing assessment

Tagged

Why use complex sentences?

Posted on July 1, 2015 | Leave a comment

In English, we have three types of sentences: simple, compound and complex. Each is better in particular situations.

Complex sentences join an independent clause with a dependent clause. These sentences are used to show a particular kind of relationship—usually a stronger idea joined to a weaker idea, or a controlling idea joined to a secondary, less important idea. Yet sometimes the independent clause is the weaker or less weighty idea compared to the dependent clause.

girl writing and thinking

Why are complex sentences used?

  • Complex sentences show relationships between clauses, such as cause and effect, contrast, and time relationships. For example, I took a walk because I need exercise.  Or, although my brother likes peaches, my sister prefers blueberries.  Or, Daniel headed home as soon as the movie ended.
  • Complex sentences can mimic the complicated thinking required to understand certain kinds of ideas, such as logic. Or, they can replicate the patterns of thinking of a deep thinker.  For example, if A is less than B, and if B is less than C, then A is less than C.  Or, the detective figured out that Morgan was the murderer because Morgan had a motive, even though his girlfriend, Emma, provided an alibi.
  • Complex sentences can force the reader to focus on one part of a sentence (one idea) rather than another part of a sentence.  For example, the Supreme Court–especially Justice Scalia–disdains creating law by its decisions since enacting laws is the job of Congress.
  • Complex sentences can gather small choppy sentences into more graceful, longer sentences.  For example, Dad grilled the chicken.  Mom mixed the salad.  The children set up a croquet game.  Later they would play.  First they would eat.  Joined together these tiny sentences become While Dad grilled the hotdogs and Mom mixed the salad, the children set up a croquet game which they would play after they ate.
  • Complex sentences can form the skeleton of informal, cumulative sentences which are patterned on the way people speak. For example, Jack said, “I expect a storm because the clouds are building up, which is a sure sign a thunderstorm is coming on hot, humid Atlanta summer afternoons like this one.”

Complex sentences can begin with the independent clause or the dependent clause; the choice belongs to the writer. Most children start with the independent clause, adding the dependent clause as they think through their ideas. Usually children limit themselves to only a few types of dependent clauses: adverbial clauses beginning with “because,” “after” and “when.” Almost never do they use relative pronouns to create complex sentences.

How can you encourage children to use complex sentences with more variety?

  • For younger children, I prepare worksheets with lists of two sentences needing to be combined. I suggest the word that needs to link the sentences, and they must write the new sentence.
  • For older children, I write a list of subordinate conjunctions from which they can choose in order to join sentences in a list which I provide. I might stipulate that half the sentences need to begin with the subordinate conjunction to force them to start sentences with the dependent clause.
  • When I am working with a group of children, I have a “spelling” bee, asking students to create a complex sentence using a particular subordinate conjunction.

Once children learn to use complex sentences, they need to be warned about overusing them. Too many complex sentences can make writing difficult to follow. So can the number of dependent clauses. Even though the number of dependent clauses which can be attached to an independent clause is unlimited, using more than two usually muddles meaning. Encourage students to limit dependent clauses to one or two per sentence, and to mix up complex, compound and simple sentences for variety.

I have been told that some languages do not contain complex sentences, that in those languages, if ideas are joined, it is by words like “and” and “but.” In those languages it is normal to show equality of ideas but not inequality. Just like having many English verb tenses makes English a richer yet more difficult language, so does having complex sentences.

Leave a comment

Posted in complex sentence, extended sentences, grammar, sentence structure

Tagged , ,

Why use compound sentences?

Posted on June 17, 2015 | Leave a comment

In English, we have three types of sentences: simple, compound and complex. Each is better used in particular situations.

A compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses joined with either a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

Child writingCoordinating conjunctions can be remembered by using the first letter of the words FAN BOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so. In writing a compound sentence, the first clause ends with a comma, followed by the conjunction and the second clause. Many students become confused where the comma goes and put it immediately before or after the conjunction. Another problem most children have is limiting themselves to only three of those conjunctions: “and,” “but” and “so.”

Coordinating conjunctions express certain kinds of relationships.

  • “And” expresses similarity, addition or sequence.
  • “But,” ”or,” “nor” and “yet” express difference, contrast or an exception.
  • “So” and “for” express a cause and effect relationship.

Correlative conjunctions (words working in pairs) are another kind of conjunction showing equality of ideas. “Either. . .or,” “Neither. . .nor,” “Not only. . .but also,” “just as. . .so,” “if. . .then,” and “Both. . .and” express the same kind of relationships as coordinating conjunctions, but are more sophisticated expressions of equality.

Certain adverbs join ideas much like coordinating conjunctions. Since they are not conjunctions, they must be accompanied by a semicolon if the ideas are in two independent clauses in the same sentence. The adverb “however” is the most used, but others include “consequently,” “furthermore,” “moreover,” “nevertheless,” “similarly” and “therefore.” Usually, these adverbs come after the semicolon and are followed by a comma. Using these adverbs adds a feeling of formality to writing. If an informal tone is required, stick to the FAN BOYS conjunctions. If a formal or well educated tone is required, use some semicolons.

When should compound sentences be used?

  • Use compound sentences to join tiny, choppy or repetitive sentences into a more sophisticated sentence.
  • Use compound sentences to show equality of ideas or a pattern of equality.
  • Use compound sentences using correlative conjunctions to force the reader to note the relationship between the ideas expressed.
  • Use a semicolon instead of a conjunction to add sophistication and variety to writing.
  • Use compound sentences to add variety to the mix of sentences.

Little children start writing by using tiny, simple sentences. Then they “graduate” to using compound sentences. Many children eventually write almost every sentence as a compound sentence joined by the word “and.” It’s important to point out the overuse of the word “and” if that is a problem in a student’s writing.

Really good writers strive to write more complicated simple sentences and complex sentences than compound sentences because the former sentences sound more sophisticated and can show various kinds of unequal relationships. If students count the number of simple, compound and complex sentences they use in a given piece of writing, and if the number of compound sentences equals or exceeds either of the other kinds of sentences, that student should rewrite some of his compound sentences.

Even so, compound sentences are used by every good writer some of the time.

Leave a comment

Posted in English Writing Instruction

Why use simple sentences?

Posted on June 10, 2015 | Leave a comment

In English, we have three types of sentences: simple, compound and complex. Each trumps in particular situations.

A simple sentence is one containing one independent clause (one complete subject and one complete predicate). Almost an infinite variety of simple sentences can be formed, making them the bedrock of modern-day English.

Simple sentences can be just one word (Run!). They can be two or three words (The dog barked. He did?) They can have compound subjects (Jack and Jill went up a hill) or compound predicates (Marie plays softball and swims). They can start with prepositional phrases (On my bike I rode to Grandma’s), gerund phrases (Munching carrots is a healthy snack) or adjectives (Big snakes scare me). They can end with adverbs (I practice the piano daily), infinitive phrases (That’s a good place to fish) or verbs (Will you go?). They can be declarative (I see), interrogative (Would you buy me one too?) and exclamatory (I won the spelling bee!).

Why use simple sentences in your writing?

  • Simple sentences can express ideas clearly. ( “We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.”
  • Short, simple sentences can add punch after a long-winded sentence. (“Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, to assure the survival and the success of liberty. This much we pledge — and more.”)
  • Simple sentences can seem honest and to the point. (“Jesus wept.”)
  • Simple sentences can mimic uncomplicated and unadorned thought patterns. (I wasn’t sure what to do. It was so dark. The baby was sobbing. I needed help. So I phoned you.)
  • Simple sentences can be expanded by modifying subjects, verbs and objects with adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases.
  • Simple sentences can seem more informal than complex sentences yet more sophisticated than certain types of compound sentences. (“All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days; nor in the life of this Administration; nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin.”)

As little children learning to write, we start with simple sentences. Then teachers introduce compound and complex sentences, encouraging students to use those kinds. Yet some great writers have built their careers on writing simple sentences—Ernest Hemingway, for example.

(To show their versatility, I wrote every sentence in this blog as a simple sentence. Did you notice?)

Leave a comment

Posted in English Writing Instruction